81 Huang SJ, Wang XH, Liu ZD, et al. Vitamin D deficiency and the risk of tuberculosis: a meta-analysis. Drug Des Devel Ther 2016 11: 91–102. 82 Talat N, Perry S, Parsonnet J, et al. Vitamin D deficiency and tuberculosis progression. Emerg Infect Dis 2010 16: 853–855. 83 Gurjav U, Ankhbat M, Ganbaatar G, et al. Vitamin D deficiency is associated with tuberculosis infection among household contacts in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2019 23: 919–923. 84 Brown KE, Campbell AH. Tobacco, alcohol and tuberculosis. Br J Dis Chest 1961 55: 150–158. 85 Lewis JG, Chamberlain DA. Alcohol consumption and smoking habits in male patients with pulmonary tuberculosis. Br J Prev Soc Med 1963 17: 149–152. 86 Obore N, Kawuki J, Guan J, et al. Association between indoor air pollution, tobacco smoke and tuberculosis: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Public Health 2020 187: 24–35. 87 Lin HH, Ezzati M, Murray M. Tobacco smoke, indoor air pollution and tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med 2007 4: 0173–0189. 88 Zhang H, Xin H, Li X, et al. A dose-response relationship of smoking with tuberculosis infection: a cross-sectional study among 21008 rural residents in China. PLoS ONE 2017 12: e0175183. 89 Altet N, Latorre I, Jiménez-Fuentes MÁ, et al. Assessment of the influence of direct tobacco smoke on infection and active TB management. PLoS ONE 2017 12: e0182998. 90 Gunasekera K, Cohen T, Gao W, et al. Smoking and HIV associated with subclinical tuberculosis: analysis of a population-based prevalence survey. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2020 24: 340–346. 91 Chu AL, Lecca LW, Calderón RI, et al. Smoking cessation in tuberculosis patients and the risk of tuberculosis infection in child household contacts. Clin Infect Dis 2021 73: 1500–1506. 92 Lin H, Lin Y, Xiao L, et al. How do smoking status and smoking cessation efforts affect TB recurrence after successful completion of anti-TB treatment? A multicenter, prospective cohort study with a 7-year follow-up in China. Nicotine Tob Res 2021 23: 1995–2002. 93 Siddiqi K, Keding A, Marshall A-M, et al. Effect of quitting smoking on health outcomes during treatment for tuberculosis: secondary analysis of the TB &Tobacco Trial. Thorax 2022 77: 74–78. 94 Simou E, Britton J, Leonardi-Bee J. Alcohol consumption and risk of tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2018 22: 1277–1285. 95 Imtiaz S, Shield KD, Roerecke M, et al. Alcohol consumption as a risk factor for tuberculosis: meta-analyses and burden of disease. Eur Respir J 2017 50: 1700216. 96 Rehm J, Samokhvalov AV, Neuman MG, et al. The association between alcohol use, alcohol use disorders and tuberculosis (TB). A systematic review. BMC Public Health 2009 9: 1–12. 97 Ragan EJ, Kleinman MB, Sweigart B, et al. The impact of alcohol use on tuberculosis treatment outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2020 24: 73–82. 98 Lönnroth K, Williams BG, Stadlin S, et al. Alcohol use as a risk factor for tuberculosis – a systematic review. BMC Public Health 2008 8: 289. 99 Francisco J, Oliveira O, Felgueiras Ó, et al. How much is too much alcohol in tuberculosis? Eur Respir J 2017 49: 1601468. 100 Rehm J, Gmel Sr GE, Gmel G, et al. The relationship between different dimensions of alcohol use and the burden of disease – an update. Addiction 2017 112: 968–1001. 101 Sorohan BM, Ismail G, Tacu D, et al. Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection after kidney transplantation: a comprehensive review. Pathogens 2022 11: 1041. 102 Mamishi S, Pourakbari B, Moradzadeh M, et al. Prevalence of active tuberculosis infection in transplant recipients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Microb Pathog 2020 139: 103894. 103 Narasimhan P, Wood J, Macintyre CR, et al. Risk factors for tuberculosis. Pulm Med 2013 2013: 11. 104 Jeon CY, Murray MB. Diabetes mellitus increases the risk of active tuberculosis: a systematic review of 13 observational studies. PLoS Med 2008 5: 1091–1101. 105 Hayashi S, Chandramohan D. Risk of active tuberculosis among people with diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta-analysis. Trop Med Int Health 2018 23: 1058–1070. 106 Al-Efraij K, Mota L, Lunny C, et al. Risk of active tuberculosis in chronic kidney disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2015 19: 1493–1499. 107 Torre-Cisneros J, Doblas A, Aguado JM, et al. Tuberculosis after solid-organ transplant: incidence, risk factors, and clinical characteristics in the RESITRA (Spanish Network of Infection in Transplantation) cohort. Clin Infect Dis 2009 48: 1657–1665. 108 Aydin V, Akici A, Isli F, et al. Relative risk of tuberculosis in patients with rheumatic diseases managed with anti-tumour necrosis factor-alpha therapy: a nationwide cohort study. J Clin Pharm Ther 2019 44: 553–560. 109 Byun JM, Lee CK, Rhee SY, et al. The risk of tuberculosis in Korean patients with inflammatory bowel disease receiving tumor necrosis factor-α blockers. J Korean Med Sci 2015 30: 173–179. 110 Park HJ, Choi BY, Sohn M, et al. Effects of tumor necrosis factor-alpha inhibitors on the incidence of tuberculosis. Korean J Clin Pharm 2018 28: 333–341. 32 https://doi.org/10.1183/2312508X.10023922 ERS MONOGRAPH |THE CHALLENGE OF TB IN THE 21ST CENTURY